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Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth’s lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. There are three kinds of plate tectonic boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries. While the crust of the planet formed from the cooling of the planet during its formation, the tectonic plates themselves formed from less dense rock not being recycled into the mantle by convection cells.This image shows the three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. Image courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey.

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Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope within the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known constant rate of decay The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by Bertram Boltwood and is now the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features, including the age of fossilized life forms or the age of the Earth itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.

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A meteorologist is an individual with specialized education who uses scientific principles to explain, understand, observe or forecast the earth’s atmospheric phenomena and/or how the atmosphere affects the earth and life on the planet. n the federal government, most atmospheric scientists work as weather forecasters with the National Weather Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in weather stations throughout the United States—at airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas.

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Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical constitution of the Earth and its atmosphere. Earth science is the study of our planet’s physical characteristics, from earthquakes to raindrops, and floods to fossils.

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Quaternary science is an inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years. The field studies the current ice age and the recent interstadial, between numerous glaciations, the Holocene, and uses proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred.

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Glaciology is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, biology, and ecology. 

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he term “United States“, when used in the geographical sense, is the contiguous United States, the state of Alaska, the island state of Hawaii, the five insularterritories of Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa, and minor outlying possessions The United States shares land borders with Canada and Mexico and maritime borders with Russia, Cuba, and the Bahamas in addition to Canada and Mexico. The northern border of the United States with Canada is the world’s longest bi-national land border.

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Brazil is divided into five primary geographic areas: the northern Guiana Highlands; Brazilian Highlands (or plateau) central and east; the massive Amazon River Basin; Pantanal wetland areas of the southwest, and the Southern Highlands – to the west and south of Curitiba. The Brazilian Highlands are covered by low mountain ranges and forested river valleys. From Rio de Janeiro – north to Fortaleza, a series of higher mountain ranges form a natural barrier between the Atlantic Ocean and the country’s interior.

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Oceanography is the study of the composition and motion of the water column and the processes which are responsible for that motion. The principal oceanographic processes influencing continental shelf waters include waves and tides as well as wind-driven and other oceanic currents. Understanding the oceanography of shelf waters and the influence this has on seabed dynamics

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Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers and layering. It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two related subfields: lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy.

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